To the general public, some search and salvage missions are more glamorous than others. For instance, projects like Curt Newport's latest shipwreck discovery, the search for Amelia Earhart's plane, or the ongoing Monitor expedition get much more major media coverage than the salvage of an abondoned jackup rig in the Gulf of Mexico. However, regardless of notoriety, all such operations are extremely challenging. Finding and raising a vessel from the sea is a cumulative effort, combining the latest and most precise survey capabilities with the ingenuity of divers and the brute strength of some of the world's most powerful ships.

Recovery of Dockyard Debris in Scotland
After US Navy operations ceased at Scotland's Holy Loch Submarine Base in 1992, a large volume of dockyard debris was believed to have been discarded on the seabed. The UK Ministry of Defence commissioned a survey of the entire loch to determine the location and level of significant debris areas. This survey was carried out in 1996 by Sonar Research & Development (SRD) using their Seabed Visualisation System (SVS).

This initial high-resolution bathymetric survey established a working grid of 25m by 25m blocks. The survey data returned a reflectivity index, or scintillation count, for each block within the grid. This figure proved to be a valuable indication of the presence of artifacts such as sheet metal, dock structures and scaffolding, and was used extensively to plan the subsequent debris recovery operations. An ROV investigation in 1996 identified the nature of several wrecks located with the bathymetric survey.

Debris clearance operations commenced in 1998 and continued into this year. Each block within the working grid was subdivided into four 12.5m by 12.5m sub-blocks, which in turn were divided into a nine-by-nine matrix of 1.38m diameter cells, broadly equivalent to the diameter of the grab and magnet used for lifting operations. An RTK DGPS base station and an SRD Tide Gauge were established onshore to provide online data for the SRD sonar systems onboard the crane barge. The barge was supplied with RTK DGPS information, which provided cm-accuracy to position the SVS transducer array. The array included an ARTX transducer with beam steering capability, which allows the insonification of a tract of seabed from a stationary (moored) vessel. In this manner, a high-resolution bathymetric survey and digital terrain model (DTM) of each sub-block were produced in virtual real time before and after debris lifting phases were carried out.

After a pre-clearance survey had been performed, a display of the seabed terrain was immediately available for inspection by the SRD operator. Debris targets could then be identified, with the onscreen display of target cells fed directly to the crane driver. A second RTK antenna sited above the lifting point of the crane jib allowed the crane driver to accurately position the grab/magnet vertically over the targets.

Additionally, an active transponder attached to the crane hook was tracked using the ARTX system and was used to monitor the vertical movement of the hook in the water column down to seabed touchdown. Both these positioning aids ensured that comprehensive clearance of debris was achieved, with each position of grab closure or magnet activation being color-coded on the screen displays.

The lifting operation was later enhanced by the installation of a load cell that gave a real-time reading of the weight being lifted. This contributed to the safety of equipment and provided the weight statistics for each cell and sub-block. A hydraulic pressure sensor enabled the operator and crane driver to observe the amount of pressure exerted by the grab. This, combined with the load cell information, helped to determine if the load was debris or mud. SRD also devised a voltage fluctuation display that determined magnet efficiency and further enabled the operator to use the electromagnet to "search" for large buried metal objects. By utilizing these methods, the grab or magnet was only recovered to the surface when it contained debris. As each lift took five minutes to recover and re-deploy, efficiency was significantly improved by not recovering an empty grab or magnet.

As loads were lifted from the seabed, the ARTX system could detect significant trailing debris (wire, cable or railings) beneath the grab or magnet. This valuable safety information was then relayed to the deck crew prior to the load breaking the surface.

All loads were landed on a specific area of deck, washed down to remove excess mud, then cut into manageable sizes. The debris was sorted into ferrous, non-ferrous, and landfill types before being deposited into skips for transporting ashore.

Three video cameras onboard were used to monitor all deck activities. The SRD operator would select the most appropriate view to record the lifting and processing of debris and the subsequent transfer and weighing of the different skip types as they were sent for recycling. Following the clearance of a sub-block, the area was re-surveyed using SRD's ARTX system. Any remaining targets were identified and recovered in preparation for a final visual inspection of the area. Video confirmation of seabed clearance was obtained with systematic footage for each sub-block, and was acquired using a crane-deployed video cage or Phantom HD2+2 ROV, each equipped with four downward-looking cameras to capture seabed images.

The positioning of the images via the video cage was conducted using a transponder and the ARTX system, while the ROV was tracked using an additional SVS system located at the bow of the barge. These systems were integrated allowing a target to be identified on one system and inspected using another. The final result was a video mosaic of the entire sub-block, which was inspected by the client for approval. The ROV surveys were also used to identify occasional discrete targets in adjacent areas where systematic clearance was not required. Such targets were marked on clearance sheets that were then passed to the SRD operator, who guided the crane driver for the successful recovery of the identified targets.

All information regarding the project was contained within the SRD Whole Field Model database, including the x and y coordinates of each grab/magnet operation, its weight, date, time and debris composition. The database catalogued over 850 debris skips removed, 2,200 video tapes, and more than 2,500 tons of processed debris. The total weight recovered from the seabed amounted to more than 4,300 tons.

Additional progress reports were submitted to the client on a daily basis. For more, visit them at www.srduk.com.

Global Industries Supports Monitor Salvage
"The weather was heavy with dark, stormy-looking clouds and a westerly wind. We passed out of the Roads and rounded Cape Henry, proceeding on our course with but little change in the weather up to the next day at noon, when the wind shifted to the south/southwest and increased to a gale… The sea rolled high and pitched together in the peculiar manner only seen at Hatteras. The Rhode Island steamed slowly and steadily ahead. The sea rolled over us as if our vessel were a rock in the ocean only a few inches above the water…The vessel was making very heavy weather, riding one huge wave, plunging through the next as if shooting straight for the bottom of the ocean, and splashing down upon another with such force that her hull would tremble."

Thus wrote Francis B. Butts, one of the few Monitor survivors who made their way to the Rhode Island, a steamer accompanying and previously towing the ill-fated vessel.

The USS Monitor began to take on water. First, the coal was too wet to keep up steam. Then the main pumps lost power.

Butts continued: "It was half-past twelve, the night of the thirty-first of December, 1862, when I stood on the forecastle of the Rhode Island, watching the red and white lights that hung from the pennant-staff above the turret, and which now and then were seen as we would perhaps both rise of the sea together, until at last, just as the moon had passed below the horizon, they were lost, and the Monitor, whose history is familiar to us all, was seen no more." The USS Monitor, a 987-ton armored turret gunboat, sank on New Year's Eve 1862, during a fierce storm 16 miles south of Cape Hatteras in 240 feet (73m) of water. The USS Monitor National Marine Sanctuary protects the wreck of the famed Civil War ironclad, best known for its battle with the Confederate ironclad Virginia (the former USS Merimack). The Sanctuary and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), through the US Navy, are salvaging the engine, turret, and other artifacts and display them in the Mariner's Museum in Newport News, Virginia.

Global Industries' Global Divers Division supplied a 1,500-foot (455m) saturation system, consisting of a diving bell and pressurized living quarters, and support personnel for the Navy divers in this undertaking. The Global saturation system is the only US Navy-approved civilian saturation diving system.

Global personnel trained the US Navy saturation diving team in the operation of the 1504 saturation system during the voyage from Houma, Louisiana to Cape Hatteras.

"As a retired Navy Master Diver myself, it was good to see that Navy dive crews are still highly skilled units. Not only can they dive, but they have skills that are invaluable on a salvage job such as this. In the (Navy) crew were welders, mechanics, electronic technicians, riggers, medical technicians, photographers, and even medical doctors. An impressive array of skills to draw from," explained Bob Merriman, Global's Project Manager for the USS Monitor salvage project.

"It never could have been done using surface diving," Merriman emphasized. "We're using the same sat system used for the deepest dive ever in the Gulf of Mexico at 1,075 feet (326m) for the Jolliet Project for Conoco. It's a great system. Global's saturation technicians Bill Louviere, Allan Hunter, and Ralph Bonnin kept it running like a Swiss watch with zero downtime for the entire project." Merriman reported that 64 bell runs were made with approximately 125 dives using the saturation system. Prior to utilization of the saturation system, Navy divers were limited to 30-minute work sessions followed by three hours of decompression.

John Broadwater, Sanctuary Manager and NOAA's chief scientist for the expedition, explained, "I am excited, but, at the same time, apprehensive, because the Monitor is in 'delicate' condition and could collapse at any time. Photographic evidence clearly shows a marked increase in the rate of deterioration of the Monitor's hull since 1990, apparently the result of both natural and human causes. Although we partially stabilized the hull last year, a partial collapse of the stern is still possible."

Recovery of the Monitor's engine and turret will be done in three phases. Phase I of the 2001 operations ended in April after divers shored up the hull with cement bags, mapped the engine, and recovered the skeg as well as the remaining section of the propeller shaft.

Phase II required installation of the Engine Recovery Structure (ERS) to lift the Monitor's steam engine. The ERS, consisting of a bridge frame spanning the wreck and an engine lifting frame suspended from the spreader, was placed over the Monitor's engine room to support the lift. Merriman explained, "Cape Hatteras is so rough you'd have to have something or you'd beat it to death. The frame was used to stabilize everything without having to play with the sea surges." Because the wreck lay upside down, the plan called for Navy divers to rig cables and straps to the engine in order to attach it to a 24-foot-square steel lifting frame. The frame, in turn, would be suspended from a spreader lying across a 70-ton bridge assembly. The engine, after being securely rigged, would be slowly lifted to the base of the spreader, and then the entire assembly, approximately 120 tons, lifted to the surface and placed on a waiting barge. Once transported to the Mariner's Museum, the electrochemical conservation process would begin, lasting a minimum of 10 years.

Phase II also included recovery of a section of the hull and armor belt, presently lying on top of the turret, as well as excavation of the turret, guns, carriage, and other items for turret recovery in 2002.

For four weeks, divers worked to remove the lower hull plating, free the engine from an encrustation of corrosive products and coal, and attach the engine to the lifting cables. "The encrustration will make you think something's there, when in fact it's gone," explained Merriman. "Ladders, for example. It looks like a ladder, but there's no ladder under the encrustation."

He continued, "The greatest challenge on this job was trying to find a balance between the meticulous techniques the archaeologists employ and the methods of the salvage diver. The archaeologist's tools are usually soft bristled brushes and teaspoons; whereas, salvage divers rely on oxy-arc and ultrathermic burning equipment, high-pressure water blasting, and heavy lifting devices. I am sure some of our techniques put a few extra gray hairs on the head of chief scientist John Broadwater, but the rapid deterioration of the Monitor called for some drastic measures. John, of course, recognized the need for this, but he cringed a lot."

All of the engine components had to be individually secured by dozens of cables and straps to the engine lifting frame because of the structure's weakened condition. The frame was positioned directly over the engine, hull plating removed, and steel cables connected between the engine and frame. Dozens of additional straps were added to ensure that all engine components were supported for the lift. Once the rigging was completed, the entire engine unit was raised approximately two feet using hydraulic rams mounted on the spreader. Then the inspections began. First, the rigging was inspected, and heavy-duty cargo nets placed beneath the engine and secured to the frame. The engine was raised to six feet and re-inspected. Then the engine lifting frame was attached to the engine recovery structure and the engine's journey to the surface began.

On July 16, 2001 at 11:56 a.m. the 30-ton steam engine rose to the surface. Secure in its 90-ton recovery structure, the engine was transported in a 93,000-gallon steel tank to the Mariner's Museum as planned.

"It's all up in one piece. We were sure it was safe, but you just never know what's going to happen to a piece of metal when it's removed from its resting spot for the last 138 years," said John Broadwater of the Monitor Sanctuary.

Global anticipates continued participation in the June/July 2002 Phase III turret recovery operation.

The first of its kind and prototype of turrets now standard on modern warships, the turret gave the Monitor its distinctive look and nickname of "cheesebox on a raft." The ironclad's turret could rotate its two guns 360 degrees, thus eliminating the need to maneuver the ship into firing position. The guns would rotate into position, fire, and then rotate away so the enemy would have nothing to fire upon or even damage because of the thick armor plating. Furthermore, the turret's rotation was steam-driven, allowing quick, precise movement. Divers reported actually uncovering one of the gun carriage's wheels during the Phase II operation. The turret, its guns and carriages, and other artifacts will be recovered and displayed at the Mariner's Museum in Newport News, Virginia.

Phoenix Continues Diving Services on Monitor Expedition
Under its ongoing Diving Services contract with the Navy's Supervisor of Salvage and Diving Office, Phoenix International served as the project manager for this year's Monitor recovery operations. Phoenix managed all logistic support and provided engineering support to the Navy for all aspects of the recovery. A barge with a heavy lift crane and living accommodations was hired from Manson Gulf of Houma, Louisiana. The barge served as the diving and salvage platform during this summer's recovery operation.

In 1998, the US Navy, working with NOAA and members of Virginia's Mariners' Museum began a series of recovery dives on USS Monitor. This summer's operation was the third, and by far the most ambitious, since the beginning of the recovery effort.

On Tuesday, August 7, Mariners' Museum staff, members, and the general public gathered at the museum's Lions Bridge to watch the arrival of the Monitor's steam engine. The event brought national media attention and nearly 300 spectators, from New York to Florida. The engine is just one of over 130 artifacts that were recovered from the Monitor National Marine Sanctuary during this year's expedition.

German Sub Found in Gulf of Mexico
In May 1942 Nazi Germany extended its U-boat attacks along the American coast into the Gulf of Mexico. During the next 12 months German U-boats would send 56 merchant vessels to the bottom of the Gulf while damaging several others. One of the vessels lost in this onslaught was the Robert E. Lee, a passenger freighter en route from Trinidad to New Orleans carrying American construction workers and survivors of U-boat attacks in the Caribbean.

As the Robert E. Lee and its escort vessel PC-566 neared Florida, the vessels attempted to make port in Tampa, Florida. Unable to get a pilot, the patrol craft radioed its command center, Gulf Sea Frontier, of the intentions of both ships to carry on to New Orleans. As the Robert E. Lee and PC-566 steamed towards New Orleans, the German U-166, possibly alerted by the radio message from the patrol craft, waited along the shipping lanes to attack the Robert E. Lee. On the calm clear morning of July 30, 1942, the U-166 struck, a single torpedo tearing open the side of the freighter. The Robert E. Lee sank quickly, taking several passengers and crew to the bottom. As survivors struggled in the water and into lifeboats, the patrol craft rushed in and commenced a depth charge attack on the U-boat. Once the commander of the PC-566 was confident that the U-boat had been chased away, the survivors were rescued.

Two days later, approximately 100 miles off Houma, Louisiana, a U-boat was sighted and bombed by a Coast Guard aircraft. The two Coast Guard Aviators noted an oil slick near where the sub had been attacked. At the end of the war, records showed that the only boat not to return from the Gulf of Mexico was the U-166.

Since that time, it has been assumed that the boat bombed by the Coast Guard aircraft off Houma was the U-166, but it is now known that was not the case.

In January 2001, C & C Technologies conducted a deepwater pipeline survey for British Petroleum (BP) Amoco and Shell International Exploration & Production in the vicinity of the reported location of the Robert E. Lee. This survey was conducted using C & C's new Hugin 3000 AUV, which was under contract to BP. The Hugin 3000 is the first commercial AUV capable of surveying to 10,000-foot (3,000m) water depths. It utilizes a state-of-the-art multibeam bathymetry and imagery system, a dual frequency chirp side scan sonar, chirp sub-bottom profiler, and inertial navigation system.

The wrecks of the Robert E. Lee and another nearby vessel - which at that point was unknown - were known to be in this area from a 1986 survey conducted by Shell. Because of the proximity of the wrecks to the proposed pipeline, BP and Shell determined that C & C would conduct an investigative survey of the area using the Hugin 3000. C & C Marine Archaeologists Robert Church and Daniel Warren reviewed the new data collected by the AUV crew. From their analysis they noted two areas of wreck debris. One of the areas was determined with relative certainty to be the Robert E. Lee. The other wreckage, thought to be the Alcoa Puritan, did not seem to match the characteristics of a nearly 7,000-ton freighter.

Several possibilities were developed as to what this target could be, including the wreckage of the U-166. The dimensions of the sonar contacts matched almost exactly to a type IX-C German U-boat (like U-166). Historical evidence indicated that no communications had been received from the U-166 following the attack on the Robert E. Lee. With this evidence, a new hypothesis regarding the loss of the U-166 was developed. The archaeologist surmised that the crew of the escort craft PC-566 were far luckier than they ever knew that fateful day, and had actually sunk the U-166. It was also their contention that the Coast Guard Aviators had bombed a different U-boat on August 1, 1942. Further historical research indicated that another U-boat, U-171, had been bombed by a "flying boat" at the same time, but had not been sunk.

Following the initial disclosure to the US Minerals Management Service (MMS) of the possibility that this could be the remains of the U-166, both BP and Shell sponsored further site-specific investigations using the Hugin 3000 AUV. The results of this data provided further evidence supporting the new hypothesis and stressed the need to verify the identity of this wreck using an ROV.

On May 31 and June 1, 2001, a team from BP, Shell, C & C, and MMS used Oceaneering's Millennium 6 ROV to test the hypothesis. Images from the ROV verified the U-166 hypothesis and revealed new insights into the last moments of the U-166 and the Robert E. Lee.

The U-166, the only German submarine sunk in the Gulf of Mexico, rests 5,000 feet (1,517m) deep, in the crater it created when it was sent to the bottom by a depth charge in the summer of 1942, shortly after the U-166 torpedoed and sank the Robert E. Lee.

Cal Dive Shows Salvage Versatility
Platform salvage using the Cal Dive Barge 1 usually entails removing caissons and small well protector platforms in shallow water. One probably would not automatically think of the 180-ton stiff-leg barge removing an 8-pile platform with a deck that weighs over 800 tons and a jacket that weighs over 1,100 tons, not counting the 500 tons of piling. In fact, one probably would not automatically assume that it was Cal Dive's Barge 1 that recently removed a 450-ton 4-pile platform from South Texas waters. But the little 180-ton stiff-leg barge did just that, by dismantling the platforms into manageable sections.

The main reason the Cal Dive Barge 1 has been so successful in the small caisson and well protector markets, as well as selectively pursuing larger platforms to remove, is the confidence the company has in the divers and tenders that routinely do the underwater burning.

"We believe our people are the best in the business and we find opportunities for them to use their underwater burning skills," says Jimmy Nichols, General Manager of the Salvage Group at Cal Dive.

A prime example was the removal of two 3-pile platforms from 200 and 215 feet (61m and 65m) of water by Cal Dive Barge 1 this past spring. The decks were relatively light, about 50 tons, but each jacket weighed about 360 tons, including the main pile and the two grouted skirt piles.

One might think that it would be an easy chore for a larger derrick barge, say one with an 800-ton capacity crane, to just pick up the jackets and lay them on cargo barges. But even an 800-ton derrick barge would be required to cut the jackets up or tow them on the hook to a shallower site where they could be rolled over and re-rigged. The rigging must be short enough to allow the jacket to be set horizontally on the cargo barge, but long enough to keep the hooks out of the water. And few derrick barges, of any size, have the crane hook height required for 215 feet (65m) of water or the kind of hooks that can be submersed in salt water. So by cutting the jackets into sections using a lower cost spread, the Cal Dive Barge 1 completed the work cost-effectively and without injury to personnel or damage to the environment.

Divers burned the legs at the connection of the thin-walled middle cans to the thick-walled joint cans. This allowed cuts to be made in the thinnest material possible and provided a cut path at the weld for the underwater burner to follow. This also allowed for the weight of each section to stay within the capacity of one block, so that the second block could be rigged to the bottom of the section after raising it out of the water. A "chain" of slings was rigged to each lower section. As the section was raised to the surface, the slings were removed in succession using the second block.

Underwater burning skills are essential for any salvage contractor for any project. Training in industry-safe work practices and honing the underwater burning skills of divers and tenders have allowed Cal Dive International to develop innovative, safe and cost-effective approaches to platform removal.

The Last Voyage of The Global Mariner
The MV Global Mariner, a 534-foot bulk carrier, was converted into a traveling exhibit by the London-based International Transport Workers' Federation (ITF). The vessel was used on a 20-month tour of 86 ports in 51 countries around the world in an effort to increase awareness of the plight of Third World mariners to the general public. After her world cruise, the Global Mariner was sold to a cargo company. One of her first jobs was in July 2000 at the Dock of Sidor in Puerto Ordaz, in the southern part of Venezuela, loading 17,000 tons of steel coils.

After leaving the dock fully loaded, the Global Mariner collided with another vessel anchored nearby. The impact damaged the middle of the vessel and she sank in a matter of minutes. The crew barely had time to jump to safety. The bow came to rest in 120 feet (36m) of water, with the stern above the surface of the water. All of the cargo rolled down and accumulated in the front portions of the vessel's five cargo holds.

Smit International was awarded the salvage contract, and in turn contracted Oriente Marine Group (OMG) to handle the diving support in November 2000. The primary job of the OMG divers was to unload the ship's cargo before it was to be lifted by Smit's salvage masters. The plan was to lift the Global Mariner in one piece, and Smit brought in a lift barge from the Gulf of Mexico to handle the task. Tide was high when the OMG crew commenced diving operations to remove the steel coils from the cargo holds, the deepest of which was at 120 feet (36m).The diving layout consisted of three diving stations of seven divers each. Each station had one diver in the water at a time, with the rest manning the topside operation. Smit divers used Nitrox to get to the deepest holds, while OMG divers used three decompression chambers and four Q-5120s to reach holds from 40 feet (12m) to 100 feet (30m) deep. All coils were removed ahead of schedule.

Meanwhile, the salvage masters decided not to lift the ship in one piece. It was cut in two due to extensive damage to the hull. Each piece was finally lifted by the Smit salvage team, successfully completing the grueling project.

Bisso Marine Keeps Salvage Crews Busy
R & B Falcon #63 - Salvage crews from Bisso Marine of New Orleans arrived at Main Pass Block 47 to find the posted drill barge R & B Falcon #63 overturned and settled at a 60 degree angle. However, adverse sea conditions caused the hull to continue to overturn, realizing a final 85-degree angle. Bisso's salvage and diving personnel first had to remove the derrick, blow-out preventer, and other drilling support equipment prior to the start of tunneling operations.

Divers tunneled beneath the hull in four locations to install four lifting straps under the hull, welding them into place. Hydraulic submersible pumps, air lines and exhaust flappers were placed in the vessel to create the displacement needed to bring the rig to the surface once the derricks broke the rig's upper superstructure free. The derrick barge Lili Bisso was rigged to the bow lifting straps and the derrick barge Cappy Bisso was rigged to the two stern straps. Spreader bars were utilized to spread the load evenly across the straps. The derrick barge Cairo was also brought on scene to further spread the lift needed to break the suction.

As operations continued, compartments were sealed and low-pressure air was forced into compartments to assure that a vacuum would not result in the collapse of bulkheads. Salvage personnel continued to pump out the hull compartments and divers jetted additional mud from machinery spaces on various levels.

The salvaged rig was towed in slings by the derricks to the Mississippi River Gulf Outlet and Gulf Intercoastal Waterways and positioned along the North bank. Bisso's derrick barge Big Chief was spudded down to provide a secure anchor so the eighteen-inch-long breach in the hull of the vessel could be repaired. Additional repairs continued, with the loads on the derricks gradually reduced and counter ballast pumped into the starboard compartments in order to render the rig level. The R & B #63 was eventually turned over to her owners for further repairs.

The J. A. Holleman - Bisso's revolving crane, the 250-ton D/B Boaz, was towed to Brazos Block 501 to find the jackup boat J. A. Holleman with a 40-degree list. The salvage crew cut off 120 feet of all three upper leg sections and the starboard lower leg and pad. The vessel was rigged and raised upright, secured to the derrick, and towed to Freeport, Texas. The entire onsite operation was performed within 31 hours and the vessel returned to the owners with a minimum of damage.

R & B Falcon #55 - R & B Falcon Rig #55 was at a 72-degree angle on her starboard side with the hull settled 22 feet into the natural bottom. The upper level drill floor had penetrated below the mud line eight feet.

After a complete survey of the situation, Bisso's salvage plan called for divers to hand-jet four-foot-wide tunnels beneath the vessel. One-hundred-foot steel straps were pulled under the vessel and utilized to upright the rig. Several compartments along the port side were used as leverage and repairs were made at the deck gunwale along the inside of the Key Way, where the well head had breached the hull. Bisso Marine derrick barges Lili Bisso and Cairo, with the revolving crane barge Big Chief, were secured to the lifting straps and the vessel brought to a 45-degree angle. Pumps were applied to the rig to remove an additional 300 tons of water and bring the vessel to an upright position.

The Cappy Bisso was attached to the starboard side to assist with potential overturning concerns. Salvage personnel brought the bow of the rig up to five feet of freeboard and the derricks held the stern at four feet. The vessel was then towed to Bollinger Ship Repair in New Orleans' Industrial Canal.

Cal Dive's Balmoral Sea - Bisso performed the salvage operation on Cal Dive International's 228-foot research vessel Balmoral Sea, which sank in a fiery blaze on June 27, 2000 in the Industrial Canal in New Orleans, Louisiana. After nine hours of attempting to extinguish the fire, the vessel rolled to starboard and rested partially submerged in 30 feet (9m) of water with her port side above the water line. Bisso salvage crews removed a stern-mounted crane, heliport, life boats, and debris around the area before welding padeyes to the side of the vessel and attaching lifting wires to the wreck. The Cappy Bisso and Lili Bisso were used to roll and lift the 614-ton ship, which was then delivered to Cal Dive.

Searching for Sub-detection Networks
Prior to the outbreak of World War II, the Japanese began construction of several different types of midget submarines. Recognizing the strategic importance of such a weapon for combat use, Japan built hundreds of these mini subs, ranging in size from just under 80 feet to over 100 feet long.

Designed to carry a crew of two to three sailors and armed with two torpedoes, these small subs were originally intended to be transported on ships and deployed in the path of an enemy fleet. However, the Japanese very quickly saw the advantages of using the mini subs for special operations inside enemy harbors where conventional submarines could not go.

To enhance their stealth capability, the midget subs were modified to ride atop full-size subs and be deployed at sea near the target location. Their compact size and shallow draft allowed them to easily penetrate coastal areas and harbors, wreaking severe damage. Mini subs were involved in the attack on Pearl Harbor, as well as raids on Sydney, Australia and Diego Suarez in the Indian Ocean. In 1942-43 the boats were deployed off Guadalcanal where they achieved modest success against US shipping. By the mid 1940s the mini subs were a scourge feared by allied forces.

To defend against these midget subs, the allies began constructing sub-detection networks along the entrances to their key harbors. The networks consisted of cables laid down on the harbor floor that could detect the passage of a steel hull vessel over them. In some of the harbors, miles of cable were laid down.

Today, more than 50 years after the war, many of the countries that still have these detection networks are having them removed for a variety of reasons. One is that many ports are expanding or having their harbors dredged deeper to accommodate today's larger ships. The cables are an obstacle to dredging operations and a potential hazard for ships anchoring.

Another reason for removing the cables is their enormous scrap value. Most of the cables were constructed of copper, but with copper in such short supply during the war years, some were actually made of silver with the intent of reclaiming them after the war. However, very little salvage was ever done.

Consortiums of private investors and government officials are now being formed to locate and remove these cables. One of the companies performing this service is Resolve Marine Group in Port Everglades, Florida. The company's roots are in salvage and wreck removal, which remains one of their specialties, but they have also expanded into a number of other areas. Their transportation division provides tug and barge services to distressed vessels including oil and chemical tankers, and in 1994 Resolve Fire & Hazard Response was established to provide state-of-the-art training for shipboard fire fighting. The company even maintains its own specially trained fire fighting team. Recently Resolve was contracted to determine the location of sub-detection cables on the bottom of the harbor leading to the Pacific entrance of the Panama Canal. A group of investors and Panamanian officials are collaborating to salvage the cables for their scrap value.

Resolve contracted JW Fishers to supply the needed detection equipment, and a Proton 4 boat-towed magnetometer, TOV-1 towed underwater camera system, and Pulse 8X diver-held metal detector were selected for the job. The Proton 4, a powerful torpedo-shaped metal detector that is towed behind the boat, was ideal for the initial site survey. Although the magnetometer was not capable of detecting the copper or silver inside the cable, its extreme sensitivity to iron and steel objects allowed it to detect the cable's armoring at a considerable range. Using the underwater camera, the group performed a visual survey of the area where the cable was located, and the hand-held metal detector helped the divers precisely pinpoint each cable.

Resolve's operations supervisor, Kevin Shore, says, "The first part of our survey operation has been completed. Our mission was to locate and confirm the existence of anti-submarine warfare magnetic loop installations dating from 1942 in the Bahia de Panama. We successfully pinpointed the location of three cables. The ability to communicate with JW Fishers personnel and follow their suggestions helped our operation run smoothly and prevented delays. The Proton 4 Tracker software, showing the GPS plot of the search grid, allowed us to make very efficient use of towing time, and made reviewing the resulting files of almost two million mag readouts a much easier task."

Shore added that, in addition to the cables, two shipwreck sites were discovered that the team hopes to investigate further in the near future. For more, visit www.jwfishers.com.

Specialty Diving Recovers Z-Drive from Mississippi River
In April 2001, Specialty Diving of Hammond, Louisiana was hired by Manson Construction to recover a 17-ton Z-drive. The unit had been lost in approximately 60 feet (18m) of water at Head of Passes in the Mississippi River's South Pass.

On April 4, 2001, Specialty Diving personnel conducted two surveys using a side scan magnetometer. Both surveys were successful in locating and documenting the position of an object in the general survey area.

Because the recovery operation required that South Pass be closed to vessel traffic, significant planning and coordination with the Coast Guard, Army Corps of Engineers, Pilots Association and Steamship Authority were required.

To reduce the negative impact on shipping, the recovery had to be accomplished quickly. If the unit could not be located and recovered in one day, it was likely the operation would be discontinued.

Personnel from Specialty Diving mobilized to perform the recovery on April 18, from a barge anchored over the target location. The plan was to set a positioning anchor and have the divers conduct expanding circle searches at ten-foot intervals.

However, strong current prohibited the divers from moving upstream and restricted their searches to a 40-degree arc at the downstream portion of each circle. This required frequent relocation of the positioning anchor with searches limited to the downstream area. Zero visibility and uncertainty as to whether the unit would be visible or completely buried compounded the search. Two separate divers maximized their bottom time making numerous searches with negative results.

As daylight waned, it began to look like the unit would not be found before the channel had to be reopened to vessel traffic. Finally, during a sweep at 50 feet from the positioning anchor, the third diver found the missing Z-drive. The knowledge that the job could be completed before the fast-approaching deadline invigorated the crew. A fourth diver was placed in the water to rig the unit for a lift using four-ply soft straps. The recovery was completed and the unit was safely cradled on deck before day's end.

This project highlighted the importance of careful planning and close coordination with all regulatory agencies and waterway users. Specialty Diving's success in recovering this unit ensured that the waterway could safely be reopened to deep draft vessel traffic.

Roll out the Bulker
Titan Maritime, a Florida-based international marine salvage company, performed the challenging wreck removal operation of the M/V Coral Bulker in Viana do Castelo, Portugal. The vessel went aground with a cargo of wood chips and timber while on a voyage from Tallinn to Viana do Castelo.

The technique Titan chose for this wreck removal was both dramatic and unusual. On the night before Christmas 2000, all was not quiet aboard the Coral Bulker, as giant seas and horrendous winds forced the vessel to ground adjacent to the quaint port village's breakwater. Needless to say, the citizens of Viana do Castelo were more than surprised to find the unexpected arrival of the Coral Bulker on Christmas morning. Upon grounding, the vessel's double bottoms were breached, resulting in the flooding of the engine room. Although the vessel was firmly grounded, heavy seas continually battered her.

Titan was awarded a wreck removal contract and immediately began mobilization of equipment from both their Fort Lauderdale, Florida and New Haven, UK warehouses. A total of 25 Titan personnel, including a salvage master, diver/salvors, on-shore coordinator, and hydraulic engineers, were sent to the site.

It is notable that, although the majority of Titan salvors assigned to this project were divers, no diver ever entered the water. Titan's approach to this wreck removal was different in that they proposed to roll the whole ship onto the breakwater, enabling them to dismantle the vessel while working in the dry. In a sense, what Titan proposed was a reverse par-buckling operation, in which, rather than using pulling forces to right a vessel, forces were applied to roll the vessel over.

This was accomplished by first emptying the ship of her entire cargo of wood chips and timber. This was no easy task; during the winter months of the operation, the Coral Bulker's decks were continually awash with seas. The salvage crew would station men with the specific task of "watching the backs" of the salvors while they worked. As the lookouts would spot an approaching sea, they would hail the word to the men who were working, allowing them to take cover in time to avoid being swept from the vessels decks. Although the divers never went into the water, they were wet for most of the job.

With the cargo holds empty, the Titan salvors took off the hats of stevedores, donned the hats of ship breakers, and began the task of removing the ship's superstructure. In three weeks, the Titan crew managed to remove almost the entire superstructure of the ship. The after most port side section was intentionally left to act as a holding point after the stern section was rolled over to prevent the vessel from sliding back down the breakwater to the sea.

With the superstructure removed, Titan began the task of cutting the ship into two separate pieces with a 17-ton drop chisel that was operated by a shore-side winch. The cable leading to the chisel was reaved through the head of one of the Coral Bulker's deck cranes that had been left in place for this purpose. The cable was then led to the winch on the shore, which would lift the chisel and repeatedly drop it. This allowed the salvors to create an effective cut line across the entire width of the ship until it was separated into two sections.

Performing this cut was a challenging task. The winch operator would allow the chisel to free fall, then stop it after it hit its mark, but before it would fall over. To ease this process the salvors inserted a large tire in the rigging between the deck crane and chisel to act as a shock absorber.

With the vessel separated into two pieces, the salvors began the chore of rolling the forward section of the ship on top of the port's breakwater. The rolling of the forward section was completed with the Titan Pullers, which were anchored to the inshore side of the breakwater by way of buried hatch covers, previously removed from the stricken vessel.

The burying of the 7.5m x 7m 80-ton hatch covers was no simple task. The small land area adjacent to the breakwater resembled the site of a large civil works project as excavators dug trenches and giant land cranes set the hatches in place.

With all ten Titan Pullers in place and anchored to hatch covers, the team tensioned up on all of the chains from a single land side control tower that had been erected on the breakwater. The control tower was fabricated from scraps from the ship's superstructure and allowed the operator to have full view of all pullers in operation. Slowly but surely, the forward port section of the Coral Bulker rolled up out of the water with the weight of the section supported on the starboard side. With the port side completely out of the water and pointing straight up into the sky, the forward section of the Coral Bulker slowly turned turtle onto the breakwater. This phase of the operation was completed on May 25, 2001.

With the rolling of the forward section a complete success, the salvors rigged the stern section to be rolled over in much the same fashion. The stern section of the Coral Bulker was dramatically heaved onto the breakwater on June 9, and was then dismantled by the salvors.

Nauticos Helps Answer Midway Questions
The Navy's hosted its third Midway Day commemoration at the US Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island in June. The celebration was the largest ever, with 850 people attending an evening that featured an educational program, a historical remembrance and a dinner/dance. Among those attending were a number of decorated WWII veterans, including four Midway battle veterans.

Nauticos' David Jourdan was the keynote speaker, and described the search expedition conducted by Nauticos and the Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO) in 1999, which aired last December on The Discovery Channel.

Japan's powerful navy had fought victorious battles at Pearl Harbor and Coral Sea and was looking eastward. Only a small US Navy outpost on Midway Island lay between Japan and Hawaii. Japanese strategists designed an elaborate plan to lure American forces into the open where they could be destroyed. However, American code breakers deciphered enough of the Japanese signals to learn of the attack. An American trap was set, as US Navy carriers steamed in position for a first strike. Just after Japanese planes took off at dawn to attack Midway Island, American planes launched to strike the Japanese carriers.

After hours in the air searching, a confluence of events inspired by chance and courage enabled the American dive-bomber pilots to arrive above the Japanese fleet just as its planes were being readied for a second launch, with fuel and ordnance laying about decks and hangars. At 10:25 that morning, a stunning American victory was won in the span of about five minutes. Three of Japan's finest aircraft carriers were left burning uncontrollably. Later, a fourth was found and met a similar fate. Japan would not recover.

Years later, the Nauticos and NAVOCEANO team got the first glimpse of wreckage of one of these great ships, lying 17,500 feet (5,300m) deep at the bottom of the Pacific.

The project began by researching the National Archives, where the logs and accounts of ships from the battle are housed. One ship, USS Nautilus, had a special role in the engagement. The Nautilus raised its periscope on the morning of June 4th and observed several plumes of smoke on the horizon. She spent the ensuing hours approaching submerged until firing three torpedoes at one of the burning Japanese carriers, then narrowly escaped. Records led Nauticos back to the scene of the attack.

Nauticos reconstructed the track of the Nautilus. Renavigation analyst Jeffrey Palshook established a point-to-base deep ocean search. NAVO team leader and geologist Dr. Devi Joseph mapped a search area and selected promising targets. Operations leader Tom Bethge was among the first to see sonar images resembling ship wreckage. Archaeologist Jeff Morris mosaicked sonar images to render a comprehensible picture. The Navy and Nauticos team returned four months later with deepwater cameras, and were rewarded with the first glimpses of large pieces of wreckage from one of the Japanese aircraft carriers sunk in the great battle.

Upon returning from Midway, thousands of photographs and hours of videotape were reduced to a handful. Nauticos collaborated with historians Tony Tully, Jon Parshall, and David Dickson, who studied the data in an attempt to identify the piece. Adding their own extensive resources of photographs and drawings of Japanese ships, they determined the wreckage belonged to the Kaga.

Now that the final resting place of Kaga is known, the relative locations of other ships and aircraft lost in the battle are reasonably well known from the historical records. A return to Midway is planned to further explore the site and commemorate the sailors and aviators who fought there. Nauticos gratefully acknowledges the dedicated efforts of the many engineers, analysts, historians and veterans who blended their knowledge, skills and abilities to make this discovery possible.

Vice Admiral A. K. Cebrowski, President of the Naval War College, honored the veterans of the Battle of Midway with the following words: "The commemoration of the Battle of Midway is simultaneously a commemoration of the transformation of war at sea. In that regard, it is an example. While focusing on history, we get a glimpse of our future."

In other news, Nauticos recently used its expertise to find a lost AUV. The Cornell University team lost their AUV during a competition sponsored by the Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International (AUVSI) this summer. The vehicle was lost in the mud in College Creek located just off the Severn River. Several days after the competition, divers searched for the AUV, but came up empty-handed due to poor visibility. AUVSI turned to Nauticos for help.

A Nauticos volunteer team set out on a hot August day determined to find the missing AUV. Using a motorboat on loan from the US Naval Academy, they searched with side scan sonar. In less than an hour, Nauticos pinpointed the location of the lost vehicle as their boat passed over it. The AUV was returned in good condition to Cornell University officials.

Dr. Robert Ballard Maps Michigan Shipwrecks
Noted underwater explorer Dr. Robert Ballard of the Mystic Aquarium and Institute for Exploration (IFE) recently partnered with NOAA and the state of Michigan to map shipwrecks in NOAA's new Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary & Underwater Preserve in Lake Huron.

The team used side scan sonar to survey and map the deepwater shipwrecks in the 448-square-mile sanctuary/preserve. To date, fewer than 40 of an estimated 116 shipwrecks have been discovered there.

Ballard, discoverer of the RMS Titanic in 1985, is the founder and president of IFE, a non-profit institution based in Mystic, Connecticut devoted to deepsea archaeological research. IFE's current programs focus on the themes of human history, natural history in deep environments, and underwater vehicle development.

"This is the first snapshot in the bigger picture of mapping, exploring, and ultimately managing the many resources of the sanctuary/preserve," explained Dan Basta, Director of NOAA's National Marine Sanctuaries. "The fact that Ballard's Institute for Exploration conducted the sanctuary's inaugural project speaks volumes about the significance of these shipwrecks that lie beneath the surface of Thunder Bay."

The Thunder Bay survey ran from June 8-22, 2001, with IFE collecting data around the clock, weather permitting. IFE used its new custom-designed underwater tow sled, known as Echo, to collect side scan sonar data. The Echo was towed by the R/V Lake Guardian, a 180-foot US Environmental Protection Agency vessel from Milwaukee.

Approximately one-third of the sanctuary was covered during this summer's expedition, the first phase in mapping the entire preserve. Future phases involve completing the mapping and exploring potential new shipwreck discoveries either by diving or using an ROV. The Thunder Bay project is also being supported by NOAA's new Office of Ocean Exploration, a program of exploration and discovery of the oceans and Great Lakes.

Curt Newport Finds Deepest Wooden Shipwreck
Underwater explorer Curt Newport, known for locating and recovering Liberty Bell 7, the Gus Grissom Mercury spacecraft, recently announced a remarkable new find - a merchant ship almost two hundred years old resting nearly 16,000 feet (4,810m) deep in the heart of the infamous Bermuda triangle. Mike McDowell and Guy Zajonc of Deep Ocean Expeditions organized the Atlantic Sands project. Newport originally made the discovery in 1999 using a side-scan sonar and guided the expedition team to the lost ship.

The wreck site was relocated and mapped by the P.P. Shirshov Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences using the Mir 1 and Mir 2 deep submersibles launched from their mother ship, the R/V Akademik Keldysh. Participating in the discovery dive were Newport and marine archeologist Jim Sinclair in Mir 1, which was piloted by Dr. Anatoly Sagalevitch. McDowell and Zajonc were in Mir 2, which was piloted by Genya Chernaiev. Piloting on subsequent dives was Viktor Nischeta. High definition video cameras supplied by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution captured beautiful images of the site. The Mir subs are best known for their many dives on Titanic and their recent exploration of the World War II German battleship Bismarck. Those missions were also Deep Ocean Expedition projects.

The expedition archeologist, Jim Sinclair, directed the collection, documentation and conservation of numerous artifacts. The items recovered include an intact hourglass, a sextant and an octant used for navigation, the ship's telescope, fabric samples, a man's boot, bottles and two flintlock pistols. Coins from various countries were found and place the date of the wreck around 1810.

Sinclair says, "She was a well equipped merchant vessel operating in a unique time in history. Given the range of navigational tools aboard, she could sail the open Atlantic, suggesting transatlantic trade. Her ports would most likely include England, the east coast of a young United States, Bermuda, the islands of the Caribbean and ports in Mexico, Central and South America. She probably delivered finished goods to the southern ports and was making her way north when taken by a storm. Our dive team located pieces of the mast, including sail, just to the north of the wreck. From records in England, Bermuda and Charleston, South Carolina, we may be able to identify the ship and her crew."

David Concannon, General Counsel and Secretary of the Professional Shipwreck Explorers Association (ProSEA), skipped the final round of the UNESCO Convention in Paris to participate in the Atlantic Sands 2001 expedition as a submersible diver and legal advisor.

According to Concannon, "Because of the rapidly evolving legal issues surrounding underwater cultural heritage, it was important for the expedition's members to understand the legal significance of their find as soon as it was discovered. All of the expedition's recovery operations were conducted in accordance with accepted legal standards and the best practical methods of marine archaeology, given the depth of the wreck, safety concerns and legal implications. We conducted 21st century marine archaeology in the field while bureaucrats in Paris, many without any experience in underwater exploration, were arguing about who will control underwater cultural heritage."

Newport says, "This expedition has proven a concept. We can take state-of-the-art underwater technologies and explore historic losses in the deepest oceans of the world. And by visiting those cold, dark and mineral-depleted environments, we can voyage back in time to see these wonderfully preserved bits of history."

Also benefiting from the expedition are 16 oceanographic scientists from the P.P. Shirshov Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Divers collected samples of plant and animal life growing on the coconuts and wood recovered from the wreck. While the dive crews were resting and submersible batteries were being recharged, additional experiments were conducted throughout the various ocean depths and core samples were taken from the site for geological studies.

But perhaps it is the dates of the various artifacts that do the best job of conveying the sense of the time period in which this ship sailed. A small piece of newspaper printed in Jamaica in 1809 offers the sale of a plantation, complete with slaves. There are coins dated before and after the American Revolution and one found on July 4, 2001, dated 1776. And then there are two French coins, one with the bust of Louis the XVI and another issued by the new French republic. All provide a fascinating glimpse into the past.

Cussler Finds Ghost Ship Marie Celeste
An expedition headed by author Clive Cussler and Canadian film producer John Davis has resulted in the discovery of the final resting place of the "ghost ship," Marie Celeste. The vessel's remains were found on Haiti's Rochelois Reef.

The Marie Celeste was found sailing off the Azores in 1872 with no one aboard. The captain, his wife, their two-year-old daughter and crew were inexplicably missing.

"After her eerie abandonment, the ship sailed under different owners for 12 years, until her last captain loaded her with a cargo of cheap rubber boots and cat food before deliberately sinking her and then filing an exorbitant insurance claim for an exotic cargo that never existed," Davis said. "Unfortunately for the captain, his plan fell apart. After running the ship on to the Rochelois Reef in Haiti, the ship hung up on the coral and refused to sink."

Insurance inspectors investigated and found the worthless cargo, leading to a conviction of the captain and his first mate.

Cussler says what happened to the original crew of the Marie Celeste may never be known. "The enigma of the Marie Celeste will continue to haunt us all for generations to come," he said. "She is a tale that will never be forgotten."

Cussler, who has written 20 best-selling novels, also helped to lead expeditions that have located nearly 70 historically significant shipwrecks, including the Confederate submarine Hunley and the Carpathia, the ship that rescued survivors from another famous shipwreck, the Titanic.

Righting the Wyatt Earp
On March 16, 2001, while under tow from San Diego to Santa Barbara, the suction dredge Wyatt Earp flipped over 11 miles outside Los Angeles Harbor, near Catalina Island, California.

American Marine Corporation responded to a call from MOAC Insurance group and began the process of righting the vessel on March 17. The dredge was first stabilized with air and then towed into LA Harbor with the permission of the US Coast Guard. Three hundred tons of flotation was used to successfully turn her without danger of sinking by strapping four flexi floats to the vessel's port side.

Mick Leitz from Fred Devine Divers out of Portland, Oregon, was on the scene to direct the salvage effort. He supplied most of the salvage equipment, as well as two diver/welders. American Marine Corporation provided the diving equipment and diving crews, as well as shore support and ancillary support of tug and crew boats. Mason Construction's DB Haakon was used to par buckle her.

The Wyatt Earp was then taken to American Marine's yard at Berth 270 to conduct the environmental cleanup and pickling of the machinery. The operation was completed on April 19, just over a month after the accident.

US Navy Continues Trying to Recover the Ehime Maru
Originally expected to be completed in October, the Ehime Maru underwent a three-month study which revealed no significant impact on the environment should be encountered during the operation to move it. The Japanese fishing vessel sunk in the waters off Hawaii after it was struck by a surfacing US submarine, the USS Greeneville on February 9, 2001.

The $40 million project being pursued by the Navy is aimed at recovering the bodies of nine men and teenage boys believed to be entombed in the vessel. Twenty-six crew members, teachers, and students on board at the time of the accident were rescued. Families of the victims have put pressure on the US to recover the bodies. The Navy affirmed their goals to pursue the operation, but made it clear that if it is not possible to conduct a safe recovery, the ship will be left at its current location.

Because the Ehime Maru rests at a depth of 2,000 feet (607m), divers cannot safely work there. The first phase of the project consists of using an ROV to place massive straps on the ship and hoist it with oilfield exploration equipment leased by the Dutch company Smit Tak from Halliburton.

Once it is lifted to a level where it can be safely pulled, it will be taken about a mile offshore to 115-foot waters (35m) near Honolulu International Airport. Before the move, the deck will be cleared of all items that could potentially harm marine life. As a precaution, the team will be equipped with booms and oil dispersants to contain and clean up any leaks.

Once the ship has been searched for the victims and personal effects by Navy and Japanese divers, its compartments will be sealed. It will then be moved to another site south of Oahu and left in an area with a water depth of 6,000 feet (1,820m), due to state and federal regulations prohibiting it from being returned to its current resting spot or being left in shallow water.

If successful, this will be the first time the Navy recovers a vessel the size of the 830-ton, 190-foot Ehime Maru from these depths. A similar vessel, the Kagawa Maru, was toured by Navy divers to prepare for the recovery operation. The Kagawa Maru was constructed from the same basic plans as the sunken vessel and both were used to train high school students for Japan's fisheries industry. A few dozen Navy sailors were on hand to evaluate the challenges they would face in their recovery efforts after the Ehime Maru is raised 100 feet off the ocean floor and moved to more shallow waters.

Three attempts within two weeks to recover the ship failed. Two attempts have been made to lift the ship with steel straps, one moving it to 23 feet and the other to 24 feet. On the first attempt to raise the ship, the straps broke and the ship was dropped. The second lifting attempt showed again that the straps were insufficient to hold the ship's weight; however the ship did not fall due to reinforcing wires. An attempt was made to drill beneath the ship, but was unsuccessful.

Although the recent efforts have been unsuccessful and further recovery methods have not been released, the Navy intends to continue the plan to move the ship and recover the bodies.

Russian Kursk Salvage Difficult
As this issue went to press, cutting of the sunken Russian nuclear submarine Kursk's bow section was almost complete. The cutting operations saw previous equipment problems, including a broken cable and jammed saw. To prevent potential accidents, all cutting is being done via ROV, without divers present.

The Russian Navy intends to retrieve the bow sometime in the future. The fore section of the ship is being left behind due to fears that it could contain unexploded torpedoes or possibly break off during lifting.

The detachment of the mangled bow is the final step in a series to prepare the vessel for attachment of steel cables into 26 holes drilled in the submarine's double hull by Aberdeen-based contractor DSND. The holes were cut so that an anchoring system can be put into place for a hoisting pontoon to lift the Kursk. Officials have stated that the submarine's two nuclear reactors were safely shut down and no radiation leakage has occurred. However, they contend that the sub should be lifted to avoid any possible danger to the rich fishing grounds of the area. The condition of the reactor is not expected to change during its recovery.

Once the steel cables are connected to the computer-controlled hydraulic lifting equipment and the vessel is raised 350 feet, it will be towed to Murmansk, a Russian naval port. Pontoons will be used to hoist the submarine onto a dry dock for examination.

Efforts to move the submarine are being planned with an eye toward determining the cause of the accident which sunk it. Officials want to find out what prompted the explosion during naval exercises on August 12, 2000, leading to the deaths of all 118 crew members.

It is speculated that the disaster could have been caused by another Russian vessel accidently firing a torpedo at the Kursk, an internal flaw in an onboard torpedo, or possibly by a collision with a foreign vessel. Investigative reports have indicated that there may have been negligence by Russian officials in responding to the explosions and possible survivors. The Kursk was one of Russia's largest and most modern submarines. Raising of the vessel is expected to last eight hours and will require calm seas to be successful. UW